Tools of Data Collection
A researcher requires many data – gathering tools or techniques. Tests
are the tools of measurement and it guides the researcher in data
collection and also in evaluation. Tools may vary in complexity,
interpretation, design and administration. Each tool is suitable for the
collection of certain type of information.
One has to select from the available tools those which will
provide data he seeks for testing hypothesis. It may happen that
existing research tools do not suit the purpose in some situation, so
researcher should modify them or construct his own.
Different tools used for data collection may be;
1. Questionnaires
2. Interviews
3. Schedules
4. Observation Techniques
5. Rating Scales
1. Questionnaire
It is list of questions related to one topic. It may be defined as; “A questionnaire is a systematic compilation of questions that are submitted to a sampling of population from which information is desired.”
Barr, Davis & Johnson
“In general, the word questionnaire refers to a device for securing answers to questions by using a form which the respondent fills in himself.”
W. J. Goode & K. Hall
The questionnaire is probably most used and most abused of the data
gathering devices .It is easy to prepare and to administer.
The questionnaire is a form prepared and distributed to secure
responses to certain questions. It is a device for securing answers to
questions by using a form which the respondent will fill by himself.
It is a systematic compilation of questions. It is an important
instrument being used to gather information from widely scattered
sources. Normally used where one cannot see personally all of the
people from whom he desires responses or where there is no particular
reason to see them personally.
Characteristics of a Good Questionnaire
1. It deals with an important or significant topic.
2. Its significance is carefully stated on the questionnaire itself or on its
covering letter.
3. It seeks only that data which cannot be obtained from the resources
like books, reports and records.
4. It is as short as possible, only long enough to get the essential data.
5. It is attractive in appearance, nearly arranged and clearly duplicated
or printed.
6. Directions are clear and complete, important terms are clarified.
7. The questions are objective, with no clues, hints or suggestions.
8. Questions are presented in a order from simple to complex.
9. Double negatives, adverbs and descriptive adjectives are avoided.
10. Double barreled questions or putting two questions in one question
are also avoided.
11. The questions carry adequate number of alternatives.
12. It is easy to tabulate, summarize and interpret.
Merits of Questionnaire Method
1. it’s very economical.
2. It’s a time saving process.
3. It covers the research in wide area.
4. It’s very suitable for special type of responses.
5. It is most reliable in special cases.
Demerits of Questionnaire Method
1. Through this we get only limited responses.
2. Lack of personal contact.
3. Greater possibility of wrong answers.
4. Chances of receiving incomplete response are more.
5. Sometimes answers may be illegible.
6. It may be useless in many problems.
2. The Interview
Interview is a two way method which permits an exchange of ideas and
information.
“Interviewing is fundamentally a process of social interaction.” - W. J. Goode & P.K. Hatt
“The interview constitutes a social situation between two persons, the psychological process involved requiring both individuals mutually respond though the social research purpose of the interview call for a varied response from the two parties concerned.” - Vivien Palmar
“The interview may be regarded as a systematic method by which a
person enters more or less imaginatively into the inner life of a
comparative stranger.” -
P.V. Young
In an interview a rapport is established between the interviewer and the
interviewee. Not only is physical distance between them annihilated,
the social and cultural barrier is also removed; and a free mutual flow of
ideas to and fro takes place. Both create their respective impression
upon each other.
The interview brings them both on the same level and an
emotional attachment supervenes between them.
In an interview all formalities are laid down and the gate is
opened for delivering into the intellectuals, emotional and subconscious
stirrings of the interviewee. Thus here the ‘depth’ of subject (man) is
gone to the very bottom of his emotional pool and may check his
truthfulness of responses.
Difference between Questionnaire and Interview
| Questionnaire Method | Interview Method. |
| Data is gathered indirectly. | Data is gathered directly. |
| No face to face contact between two. | There is face to face contact between interviewer and interviewee. |
| Interviewer should have the general knowledge of the topic. | Skillful interviewer is needed. |
| Interviwee will hesitate to write it. | Some confidential information can also be obtained. |
| We get written information only. | We get written and oral both type of information. |
Characteristics of a Good Interview
1. The interviewer can probe into casual factors, determine attitudes,
discover the origin of problem.
2. Its appropriate to deal with young children and illiterates person.
3. It can make cross questioning possible.
4. It helps the investigator to gain an impression of the person
concerned.
5. It can deal with delicate, confidential and even intimate topics.
6. It has flexibility.
7. Sincerity, frankness, truthfulness and insight of the interviewee can
be better judged through cross questioning.
8. It gives no chance for respondent to modify his earlier answer.
9. It is applicable in survey method, but it is also applicable in
historical, experimental, case studies and clinical studies.
Merits of Interview
1. Direct research.
2. Deep research
3. Knowledge of past and future.
4. Knowledge of special features.
5. Mutual encouragement is ossible.
6. Supra-observation is possible.
7. Knowledge of historical and emotional causes.
8. Examination of known data.
Demerits of Interview
1. May provides misleading information.
2. Defects due to interviewee(low level of intelligence or may be
emotionally unbalanced).
3. Result may be affected due to prejudices of interviewer.
4. Result may be affected due to the difference in the mental
outlook of interwee and interviewer.
5. One sided and incomplete research.
6. Art rather than science.
3. Schedule
When a researcher is using a set of questionnaires for interview purpose it is known as schedule.
“Schedule is the name usually applied to set of questions, which are
asked and filled by an interviewer in a face to face situation with
another.” -
W.J. Goode & P. K. Hatt
By a schedule we cannot, however, obtain information about many
things at once. It is best suited to the study of a single item thoroughly.
According to Thomas Carson Macormie, “The schedule is
nothing more than a list of questions which, it seems necessary to test
the hypothesis.”
Thus schedule is a list of questions formulated and presented
with the specific purpose of testing an assumption or hypothesis.
In schedule method interview occupies a central and plays a vital role.
As a matter of fact success in the use of schedule is largely
determined by the ability and tact of the interviewer rather than by the
quality of the questions posed.
Because the interviewer himself poses the questions and notes
down the answers all by himself, the quality of questions has not any
great significance.
Important Features of Schedule
1. The schedule is presented by the interviewer. The questions are
asked and the answers are noted down by him.
2. The list of questions is a mere formal document, it need not be
attractive.
3. The schedule can be used in a very narrow sphere of social research.
4. It aids to delimit the scope of the study and to concentrate on the
circumscribed elements essential to the analysis.
5. It aims at delimiting the subject.
6. In the schedule the list of questions is preplanned and noted down
formally and the interviewer is always armed with the formal
document detailing the questions.
Thus interviewer not to depend upon the memory.
Points to be kept in mind while designing schedule
1. Interviewer should not frame long, complex, defective questions.
2. Unrelated and unnecessary questions should not be asked.
3. Schedule should not contain personal and upsetting questions.
4. Its questions should be simple, clear and relevant to topic.
5. Questions be suitable to respondent’s intelligence level.
6. Impersonal, indirect and unambiguous questions should be included
in schedule.
Merits of Schedule
1. Higher percentage of responses.
2. Possible to observe personality factors.
3. Through interview personal contact is possible.
4. It is possible to give human touch to schedule.
5. Removal of doubts is possible because face to face interaction is
there.
6. It is possible to know about the defects of the interviewee.
4. Observation
This is most commonly used technique of evaluation research. It is used
for evaluating cognitive and non-cognitive aspects of a person. It is used
in evaluation performance, interests, attitudes, values towards their life
problems and situations.
It is most useful technique for evaluating the
behaviors of children. It is technique of evaluation in which behavior are observed in a natural
situations.
“It is thorough study based on visual observation. Under this
technique group behaviours and social institutions problems are
evaluated.” - C. Y. Younge
“Observation employs relatively more visual and senses than
audio and vocal organs.” -
C.A. Mourse
The cause- effect relationship and study of events in original
form, is known as observation.
Observation seeks to ascertain what people think and do by
watching them in action as they express themselves in various situations
and activities.
Observation is recognized as the most direct means of studying
people when one is interested in their overt behavior.
In questionnaires and interview people may write answer as
they think, they do but this is often different from what they actually
do. These restrictions are missing in observation so observation is a
more natural way of gathering data. Artificiality and formality of
questionnaires and interview is replaced by reality and informality in
observation. Data obtained through observation are more real and true
than the data collected by any other method. It also plays a particular
part in survey procedure.
Characteristics of Observation Schedule
According to Jahoda it has many characteristics;
1. It serves a formulated research purpose.
2. It is planned systematically rather than occurring haphazardly.
3. It is systematically recorded and related to more general
propositions.
4. It is subjected to checks and controls with respect to validity ,
reliability and precision.
5. It is a direct technique to study an object, an event or a
problem.
6. It is based mainly on visual –audio scene.
7. It employs own experiences.
8. It establishes cause-effect relationship.
9. It is an objective technique of data collection.
10. It is both objective and subjective evaluation technique.
11. It is formal as well as informal technique.
12. It is quantitative as well as qualitative technique for data
collection.
Advantages of Observation
1. It is reliable and valid technique of collecting data and
information.
2. We get first hand data through this method.
3. Record of observation is also available immediately.
4. It is simple, broad and comprehensive method.
5. It is an oldest technique of data collection and getting direct
information.
Limitations of Observation
1. It has a limited scope for its use because all the events cannot
be observed directly.
2. It is subjective method.
3. It is very time consuming process.
4. Costly so energy consuming also.
5. Presence of observer influences the behavior of the person i.e.
subject becomes conscious.
6. In case covert behavior, which can’t be observed, it is not
useful.
7. Observer should be trained and experienced.
5. Rating Scale
Ratting is term applied to express opinion or judgment
regarding some situation, object or character. Opinions are usually
expressed on a scale of values; rating techniques are devices by which
such judgments may be quantified.
“Rating is an essence and direct observation.” - Ruth Strong
“A rating scale ascertains the degree, intensity and frequency of
a variable.” -
Von Dallen
Rating techniques are more commonly used in scaling traits and
attributes.
A rating method is a method by which one systematizes, the
expression of opinion concerning a trait.
The rating is done by parents, teachers, a board of interviewers
and judges and even by the self as well.
The special feature of rating scale is that the attitudes are
evaluated not on the basis of the opinions of the subjects but on the
basis of the opinions and judgments of the experimenter himself.
In rating scale data are collected by; Verbal behavior, facial
expression, personal documents, clinical type interview, projective
techniques and immediate experiences as emotions, thoughts and
perceptions.
Advantages of Rating Scale
1. Writing reports to parents.
2. Filling out admission blanks for colleges.
3. Finding out students’ needs.
4. Making recommendations to employers.
5. Supplementing other sources of under taking about child.
6. Stimulating effect upon the rates.
Limitations of Rating Scale
1. Difference in rating abilities.
2. Difference in reliability as subjects for rating.
3. Agreement among raters of one type of contact only.
4. Average superior than single.
5. Impact of emotions.
6. Limits of self-rating.
7. Over rating.
8. Limits of rating of specific qualities.
9. Limits of justifications.
Activities Involved in Data Collection
Data must be collected and recorded in a form suitable for the intended analysis. The collection of data requires time and substantial effort for acquiring skills and making the necessary arrangements for collection and to ensure adequate quality.
Access to Data
Generally it is a problem for researcher to get access to data because the institutions or the persons who generally control the data are not willing to provide him data for one or the other reason or excuse. Some necessary steps are required to motivate such institutions or persons to provide necessary data willingly. Some educational problems are of such nature that the subjects specially girls are not willing to disclose correct information. Similarly a researcher of any board or university may not have access to confidential data.
Adequate Standard
The researcher should demonstrate that his data were properly
collected. It is possible if the following conditions are fulfilled.
(i) It should be ensured that the supplied data met e requirement of
validity. In other words the data should, ensure what they claimed
to measure.
(ii) Proper attention should be paid to measurement error.
The following types of error are possible in data collection;
(iii) It should be ensured that a suitable sample was drawn out of the population so that proper generalization could be made.
(iv) It should also be checked that the data were properly recorded. The conditions under which the data were gathered should be properly noted and suitable data recording method should be used. The efforts should be made to detect and eliminate errors arising during recording. The data are generally recorded in the following forms;
Data Organization
Whatever method is used for collection of data it will be necessary that
an extensive set of supplementary notes should be made for the
following;
(a) Sources of data
(b) Conditions under which data were gathered.
There should be stored in such a way as offer some reasonable
prospects of retrieval when required.
Collecting Primary Data and Secondary Data
The primary data can be collected through laboratory measurement,
field observation, questionnaires, interviews, opinionnaires, schedules
etc.
The secondary data can be collected from technical publications
such as manuals, handbooks, data sheets, and standards, books and
journals, official publications of the Central government, state
governments, local bodies, private data services and computer data
base.
General Rules
There are some general rules that apply to all types of data collection.
They are as follows;
(i) Do not collect more information than is required for the research
problem.
(ii) Make sure the wording of the data collection instrument is clear and
unambiguous.
(iii) Use clear and explicit instructions in data collection instruments.
(iv) Design the response options as carefully as the items stems
themselves.
(v) Make responding to the measuring instrument as alternative as
possible.
(vi) Make sure that the final products look professional